From: Low presence of potentially toxic elements in Singapore urban garden soils
Location; garden type | Cd | Cu | Pb | Zn | Issues mentioned | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil; urban gardens | 0.11–0.20a | 16–42a | 11–30a | ND | Proximity to potential sources | Dala-Paula et al. (2018) |
Jos, Nigeria; cultivated soils | 0.08–0.19 | 1–4 | 3–5 | 8–13 | Urban ash (deposition, soil amendment) | Pasquini and Alexander (2004) |
Nanjing, China; peri-urban ag soils | 0.08–0.15a | 21–30a | 31–33a | 53–71a | Deposition; industrial effluent | Huang et al. (2006) |
Salamanca, Spain; urban gardens | 0.07–0.33 | ND | 10–26 | ND | Fertilizers (Cd); trafficking (Pb) | Sanchez-Camazano et al. (1994) |
Visakhapatnam, India; semi-urban | ND | 11–31a | 15–48a | 43–50a | Proximity to industry | Srinivas et al. (2009) |
Alice, S Africa; home garden soils | 0.10–0.80a | 5–8a | 5–14a | 18–53a | Minor contamination | Bvenura and Afolayan (2012) |
Toronto; community gardens | 0.27–0.40 | 22–33 | 19–96 | ND | Trafficking processes | Wiseman et al. (2013) |
Guangzhou, China; urban veg gardens | 0.02–1.9 | 6–25 | 25–55 | 57–195 | Atmospheric deposition | Xiong et al. (2016) |
Namyangju, Korea; urban field near road | bdl | 15–30 | 14–18 | 61–77 | Inconclusive; some road effects | Kim et al. (2017) |
Thessaloniki, Greece; Peri-urban farm plots | 0.16–0.26 | 18–40 | 16–37 | 3–124 | Proximity to industry was NOT an issue | Vousta et al. (1996) |
Wuxi, China; peri-urban ag soils | 0.14–0.17a | 35–37a | 38–42a | 104–112a | Deposition; industrial effluent | Huang et al. (2006) |
Rostock, Germany; urban garden soils | 0.05–0.60 | 1–59 | 3–57 | 3–95 | Diffuse; highest in city center | Kahle (2000) |
Sakai, Osaka; (peri)urban veg farms | ~ 0.25–0.90a | ~ 10–30a | ~ 10–35a | ~ 30–125a | Redistribution of legacy metal; trafficking | Komai and Yamamoto (1982) |
Skarżysko-Kamienna, Poland; allot. gardens | 0.30–5.8 | 3–15 | 7–33 | 2–99 | Inconclusive; probably industrial | Świercz and Zajęcka (2018) |
Kabul, Afghanistan; urban gardens | 0.15–0.20 | 50–66 | 25–33 | 113–184 | Traffic, war, contaminated irrigation water | Safi and Buerkert (2011) |
New Brunswick, CA; residential gardens | ~ 0.02–0.05 | ~ 18–34 | ~ 27–115 | ~ 77–145 | Industrial legacy; long-term deposition | Pilgrim and Schroeder (1997) |
Baoding, China; sewage-irrigated soils | 0.17–0.40 | 26–44 | 27–58 | 113–250 | Sewage irrigation water | Xue et al. (2012) |
Szeged (Bakto), Hungary; urban gardens | 0.27–2.86 | 19–580 | 5–61 | 33–199 | Traffic; pesticides | Szolnoki et al. (2013) |
Jiangsu cities (China); peri-urban ag soils | ND | 38–45a | 88–120a | 45–47a | Industrial, urban processes | Hao et al. (2009) |
Manitoba province, CA; urban ag soils | 0.8–1.7 | 16–37 | 24–43 | 62–110 | Road phenomena most likely | Mills & Zwarich (1975) |
Beijing, China; gardens and green spaces | 0.14–0.24a | 28–50a | 30–74a | 78–118a | Age, traffic processes, urban sources | Beavington (1975) |
Torun, Poland; botanical garden topsoil | bdl | bdl–30 | bdl–148 | 6–142 | Natural soil genesis | Charzyński et al. (2018) |
Cowra (Au); commercial/residential gardens | 0.01–0.80 | 1–96 | 7–12 | 9–336 | No main pollution sources | Kachenko and Singh (2006) |
Beijing (Tongzhou); irrigated soils | 0.41–1.71 | 22–49 | 48–53 | 136–176 | Waste-water irrigation | Khan et al. (2008) |
Varnasi city, India; suburban garden soils | 0.90–5.65 | 3–30 | 9–25 | 22–208 | Waste-water irrigation | Sharma et al. (2006) |
Koszalin, Poland; allotment soils | 0.04–0.53a | 8–34a | 8–57a | 78–220a | Natural signature; garden management | Bielicka-Giełdoń et al. (2013) |
Singapore; urban gardens | bdl–3.2 | 10–77 | bdl–37 | 71–164 | Proximity to industry/roads & industry; diffuse urban signal | This study |
Mumbai, India; railway gardens | 0.1–1.1 | 60–231 | 3–7 | 15–111 | Irrigation water; pesticides; railway signal | Vazhacharickala et al. (2013) |
Ho Chi Minh City; urban ag lands | ND | 8–70 | bdl–27 | bdl–272 | Amendments (fert/pest); urban waste | Tran et al. (2020) |
Vancouver, Ca; community garden | ND | 36–63 | 22–82 | 51–133 | Legacy deposition, roads, industry | Oka et al. (2014) |
Kano City, Nigeria; urban veg gardens | 2.3–4.0 | 5–14 | 2–17 | 17–233 | Irrigation wastewater | Abdu et al. (2011) |
Oregon (Corvallis, Portland); food gardens | bdl–0.57 | 25–109 | 0.2–347 | ND | Not determined; compost concerns | Nelson (2018) |
Seoul, Korea; rooftop gardens | 0.9–1.9 | 6–118 | 6–21 | 51–268 | Deposition (local and long-distance) | |
Shangdong towns (China); garden soils | 0.03–0.99 | 1–160 | 9–27 | 25–223 | Trafficking; industry; waste irrigation | Liu et al. (2011) |
Zurich; urban gardens | ND | 16–34 | 19–1076 | ND | Legacy (esp. Pb); deposition | Tresch et al. (2018) |
Nanjing, China; peri-urban ag soils | 0.19–0.58 | 22–58 | 21–150 | 76–181 | Fertilizers; deposition; industry emissions | Hu et al. (2018) |
Guelph, Ontario, CA; Community gardens | 0.38–1.84 | ND | 16–151 | 97–503 | Low-income area; legacy | Montaño-López and Biswas (2021) |
Kaduna, Nigeria; river bank gardens | 0.07–0.95 | 11–36 | 26–154 | 53–218 | Deposition; vehicular emissions | Agbenin et al. (2009) |
Lisbon area; urban allotment soils | ND | 10–62 | 1–110 | 33–146 | Uncertain; roads/airport likely | Leitão et al. (2018) |
Nanjing; urban/suburban gardens | ND | 23–72 | 35–84 | 100–283 | Decreases from urban to rural | Fang et al. (2011) |
Kunming, China; peri-urban garden | 0.53–0.80 | 87–208 | 42–62 | 77–148 | Geogenic; manure inputs; uncertain | Zu et al. (2014) |
Bragança, Portugal; peri-urban gardens | 0.9 ± 0.2a | 128 ± 28a | 56 ± 78a | 89 ± 28a | Organic farming; new city sources | Arrobas et al. (2017) |
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; urban ag | 0.15–0.26a | 4–8a | 9–33a | 13–57a | Uncertain; contaminated irrigation water | Kibassa et al. (2013) |
Delhi, India; peri-urban soils | 2.28–2.51a | 24–77a | 21–59a | 73–175a | Wastewater irrigation, fertilizer, deposition | Bhatia et al. (2015) |
Kayseri, Turkey; urban veg gardens | 1–48-2.11a | 44–68a | 67–108a | 128–179a | Not determined | Tokalioglu et al. (2006) |
Danang, Vietnam; urban ag/garden soils | 0.1–0.7 | 30–495 | 1–5 | 53–562 | Air-borne pollutants; ag amendments | Thuy et al. (2000) |
Johannesburg, SA; school veg gardens | ND | bdl–80 | 27–100 | 91–427 | Proximity to pollution sources | Kootbodien et al. (2012) |
Hanoi, Vietnam; urban farm soils | 3.9–4.5 | 195–230 | 125–145 | 187–263 | Contaminated irrigation water | Nguyen et al. (2010) |
Harare, Zimbabwe, metropolitan farms | 1.0–3.4 | 21–94 | 17–59 | 42–228 | Irrigation with wastewater | Mapanda et al. (2005) |
Hyderabad, Pakistan; unclear | 1.6–4.3a | 11–32 | 21–67 | 105–209 | Wastewater irrigation | Jamali et al. (2007) |
Kano City, Nigeria; garden soil | 1.4–9.6a | ND | 16–91a | 77–246 | Inconclusive; irrigation water suspected | Egwu and Agbenin (2013) |
Tacoma, Washington, USA; urban gardens | 0.30–0.80a | 32–118a | 38–110a | 100–219a | Uncertain; past management effects | McIvor et al. (2012) |
Melbourne; urban garden soil | 0.12–1.04 | ND | 13–773 | ND | House age; distance to roads | Kandic et al. (2019) |
Lisbon, Portugal; urban allotment gardens | bdl | 5–87 | 23–245 | 35–208 | Industry; traffic phenomena | Bechet et al. (2018) |
Hue City, Vietnam; peri-urban farms | 0.03–0.44 | 3–39 | 4–25 | 12–212 | Irrigation water; flood disposition | Pham et al. (2021) |
Ottawa, CA; garden soils | 0.11–0.75 | 6–42 | 16–547 | 50–380 | Age; limited industrial activity | Rasmussen et al. (2001) |
Hangzhou; urban–rural vegetable soils | 0.10–0.64 | 14–78 | 20–87 | 59–265 | Agrichemicals; vehicles exhaust; industry | Chen et al. (2008) |
Xianyang (China); suburban garden soil | 0.2–2.45 | 6–50 | 24–132 | 40–526 | Plastic, fertilizers, traffic, industry | Wang et al. (2018) |
Hong Kong area; market garden soils | 0.25–2.17 | 5–67 | 24–113 | 20–232 | Urbanization and traffic volume | Wong (1996) |
Plock city, Poland; allotment gardens | 0.41 [2.12]+ | 9 [38]+ | 9 [24]+ | 313 [2947]+ | Dust fall (Industry, transportation) | Mikula and Indeka (1997) |
Perth, Australia; former market gardens | 0.02–0.66 | 2–68 | 3–174 | 6–304 | Construction; roads; waste disposal | Rate (2021) |
Wuxi, China; peri-urban ag soils | bdl–0.14 | 27–152 | 17–162 | 30–445 | Trafficking, industry, manufacturing | Zhao et al. (2007) |
Connecticut; community gardens | bdl | 20–75a | 22–450a | 60–238a | Not identified specifically | Stilwell et al. (2008a) |
Wollongong, Australia; home gardens | 1.99 ± 0.3 | 847 ± 114 | 13.3 ± 3.1 | 229 ± 17 | Proximity to Cu smelter | Beavington (1975) |
Taiwan; urban park soils++ | bdl–3.33 | 9–117 | 8–57 | 49–379 | Industry sources | Jien et al. (2011) |
Guangdong, China; vegetable gardens | 0.26–1.17 | 210–450 | 73–134 | 92–142 | E-waste processing | Luo et al. (2011) |
Kaduna, Nigeria; urban field gardens | ND | 18–85 | 160–200 | 156–433 | Wastewater irrigation; waste disposal | Akpa and Agbenin (2012) |
Naples, Italy; urban gardens | ND | ~ 20–85 | ~ 75–325 | ~ 50–450 | Traffic, Industry, ag amendments | Imperato et al. (2003) |
Vienna, Austria; buried pots in gardens | ~ 0.10–0.75 | ND | ~ 5–165 | 74–2600 | Great variability reported | Ziss et al. (2021) |
Southampton (UK); urban horticulture soils | 0.14–0.80 | 19–86 | 34–488 | 60–485 | Geology; mixed (indust, petrol, burning) | Crispo et al. (2021) |
Adelaide, Australia; urban ag sites | 0.01–0.38 | 25–183 | 30–268 | < 1–662 | Legacy (industry) | Salomon et al. (2020) |
Vancouver, CA; urban gardens/farms | bdl | 35–127a | 69–208a | 77–887a | Not explored | Thomas (2013) |
Nantes, France; urban allotment gardens | 0.1–17.7 | 13–117 | 19–229 | 26–272 | Industry; traffic phenomena | Bechet et al. (2018) |
Bottrop, Germany; variety of urban gardens | ~ 1.8–2.7 | ~ 15–145 | ~ 50–155 | ~ 125–295 | Inconclusive | Burghardt and Schneider (2018) |
Zagreb, Croatia; urban/suburban ag | 0.25–3.85 | 4–183 | 1–139 | 15–277 | Multiple anthropogenic processes | Romic and Romic (2003) |
Harrisburg, PA (USA); potential gardens | ND | 11–46a | 26–402a | 30–216a | Legacy Pb; road phenomena | Kessler et al. (2013) |
Madrid, Spain; community gardens | ND | 11–59 | 15–598 | 72–309 | Landuse history; proximity to urban center | Izquierdo et al. (2015) |
Île-de-France, France; market gardens | 0.55–0.99 | 81–156 | 229–436 | 231–367 | Legacy (industry, sludge disposal) | Barbillon et al. (2019) |
Cotorro, Havana; peri-urban gardens | ND | 50–945 | 21–731 | 91–7739 | Wind direction (smelter) | Díaz Rizo et al. (2015) |
Torino, Italy; gardens and parks | ND | 40–293 | 17–565 | 75–550 | Diffuse pollution | Hursthouse et al. (2004) |
Baton Rouge, LA, USA; peri-urban | ND | 6–189 | 11–967 | 32–1031 | Industry, construction, traffic | Weindorf et al. (2012) |
Sheffield, UK; gardens/allotments | ND | ~ 45–180 | ~ 70–600 | ~ 185–750 | Varies by land use; e legacy metals | Weber et al. (2019) |
Gyongyosoroszim, Hungary; veg gardens | 0.22–13.60 | ND | 21–694 | 97–2050 | Flood water from old Zn/Pb mine | Sipter et al. (2008) |
Hangzhou, China; suburb veg gardens | ND | 4–144 | 14–98 | 76–302 | Organic manuring | Wuzhong et al. (2004) |
Porto, Portugal; urban ag/farm soils | 0.1–1.1 | 10–248 | 27–415 | 92–465 | Airport; oil refinery; roads | Cruz et al. (2014) |
Madrid; parks and gardens; other | ND | 18–194 | 31–463 | 82–514 | Waste sludge; fertilizers; roads; other | De Miguel et al. (1998) |
Nates, France; community garden | ND | 16–151a | 28–5785a | 32–193a | Anthropogenic and geogenic | Jean-Soro et al. (2015) |
Nova Scotia; community/yard gardens | ND | 11–108 | 10–767 | 42–350 | Various potential anthropogenic sources | Heidary-Monfared (2011) |
Washington DC; urban farm/garden | ND | 13–159 | 16–869 | 32–607 | Legacy and urban/trafficking sources | Long (2010) |
Liverpool (UK); urban horticulture soils | 0.19–2.2 | 27–166 | 76–514 | 94–497 | Geology; mixed (industry, petrol, burning) | Crispo et al. (2021) |
Leicester (UK); urban horticulture soils | 0.25–4.8 | 27–110 | 76–454 | 127–614 | Geology; mixed (industry, petrol, burning) | Crispo et al. (2021) |
Columbus and Cleveland; established gardens | 0.93–4.15 | 23–101 | 31–553 | 97–645 | Legacy (Pb paint); prior activities | Kaiser et al. (2015) |
Ghent, Belgium; urban gardens | 0.16–4.91 | 11–107 | 55–385 | 39–1325 | Road phenomena; general industry signal | Folens et al. (2017) |
Hong Kong; urban parks | 0.02–5.89 | 5–190 | 5–404 | 39–435 | Age; amendments (fertilizers), road dust | Li et al. (2001) |
Sevilla, Spain; parks/ag/gardens | 0.18–4.85 | 14–198 | 23–725 | 39–326 | Trafficking; organic amendments | Ruiz-Cortes et al. (2005) |
Newcastle (UK); urban horticulture soils | 0.43–1.1 | 25–246 | 82–501 | 185–629 | Geology; mixed (industry, petrol, burning) | Crispo et al. (2021) |
Montreal, CA; urban gardens | 0.4–1.8a | 15–400a | 150–400a | 210–300a | Compost; highly variable | Murray et al. (2011) |
Buffalo & NYC, NY; urban farms/gardens | BDL–3.6 | 40–83 | 18–3620 | 136–1060 | Deposition; non-uniform contamination | |
Wales & England; urban soils only | 0.4–1.9 | 4–75 | 14–680 | 6–744 | Trafficking, industry, mining, other | Davies (1978) |
Dublin area; garden soils | > 3–5 | 11–145 | 39–540 | 117–940 | Wind direction from urban sources | Fleming and Parle (1977) |
Sevilla, Spain; allotments and parks | ND | 14–698 | 14–1080 | 38–611 | Vehicular sources | Hursthouse et al. (2004) |
Leeds (UK); urban horticulture soils | 0.24–2.5 | 33–372 | 104–1682 | 139–503 | Geology; mixed (industry, petrol, burning) | Crispo et al. (2021) |
Milton Keynes (UK); urban horticulture soils | 0.21–6.5 | 19–228 | 29–3943 | 89–413 | Geology; mixed (industry, petrol, burning) | Crispo et al. (2021) |
Bangkok, Thailand; general urban soils++ | 0.05–2.53 | 5–283 | 12–269 | 3–814 | Soil type; urban processes; roads | Wilcke et al. (1998) |
Breschia, Italy; home gardens | bdl–4.00 | 28–410 | 36–207 | 58–845 | Proximity to industry | Ferri et al. (2015) |
Connecticut; comm and res gardens | bdl–3.5 | bdl–900 | bdl–3490 | 15–520 | Not identified specifically | Stilwell et al. (2008b) |
Los Angeles; urban gardens | 0.11–4.27 | ND | 18–1720 | ND | Proximity to roads; age of neighborhood | Clarke et al. (2015) |
Edinburgh (UK); urban horticulture soils | 0.30–2.4 | 33–103 | 84–1229 | 138–996 | Geology; mixed (industry, petrol, burning) | Crispo et al. (2021) |
Nottingham (UK); urban horticulture soils | 0.54–4.6 | 42–127 | 124–1019 | 235–862 | Geology; mixed (industry, petrol, burning) | Crispo et al. (2021) |
Quezon City, Philippines; cropped soils | ND | 84–784 | 300–6550 | bdl–1817 | Urban processes; landfill legacy | Navarrete et al. (2017) |
Melbourne (AU); residential veg gardens | ND | bdl–323 | bdl–3341 | bdl–3003 | Age (e.g., for lead); road/rail proximity | Laidlaw et al. (2018) |
Mexico City; garden, park & other soils | ND | 15–398 | 5–452 | 36–1641 | Trafficking/roads; Industrial sources | Morton-Bermea et al. (2009) |
Sydney (AU); urban veg gardens | ND | 33–717 | 14–3080 | 50–2020 | Inner city has high lead legacy | Rouillon et al. (2017) |
Wroclaw, Poland; allotment gardens | ND | 13–595 | 13–659 | 38–2103 | Proximity to pollution sources | Kabala et al. (2009) |
Chicago; various urban gardens/farms | ND | 9–19a | 34–449 | 38–69a | Not substantiated | Witzling et al. (2010) |
Christchurch; urban gardens | 0.33–10.7 | 12–118 | 23–2615 | 68–799 | Age (pre-1950 neighborhoods) | Ashrafzadeh et al. (2018) |
Cardiff (UK); urban horticulture soils | 0.15–4.3 | 10–216 | 30–2149 | 46–1213 | Geology; mixed (industry, petrol, burning) | Crispo et al. (2021) |
Bristol (UK); urban horticulture soils | 0.46–3.3 | 14–752 | 88–1211 | 115–960 | Geology; mixed (industry, petrol, burning) | Crispo et al. (2021) |
Copenhagen, Denmark; urban gardens | ~ 0.3–3.7a | ~ 10–450a | ~ 10–600a | ~ 40–1260a | Inconclusive; urban signal | Warming et al. (2015) |
Gijón (Asturias, Spain); peri-urban soils | 0.4–2.3 | 6–244 | 33–585 | 64–1047 | Coal combustion; unidentified sources | Boente et al. (2017) |
Marseille, France; veg gardens | 0.16–8.86 | 14–473 | 20–566 | 43–1020 | Chemical fertilizers, fungicides | Zhong et al. (2022) |
New York (USA); community gardens | bdl–3.1 | 6–598 | 11–2455 | 21–2317 | Legacy Pb; long-term urban processes | Mitchell et al. (2014) |
Baltimore, MA, (USA); urban gardens | 0.02–13.65 | 1–97 | 1–10,900 | < 1–4880 | Legacy (inner city); urban activities | Mielke et al. (1983) |
Paris area (France); Ag + urban gardens | 0.90–15.0 | ND | 42–854 | 100–1292 | Deposition legacy (mining, smelting) | Pelfrêne et al. (2012) |
Baltimore (USA); urban farms/gardens | ND | ~ 20–300 | ~ 7–1000 | ~ 50–600 | Not determined; produce was safe | Lupolt et al. (2021) |
Brooklyn, NY; urban gardens | ND | 53–328a | 66–1025a | 150–1474a | Legacy urban pollutants | Egendorf et al. (2018) |
San Francisco (USA); garden soils | bdl–8.14 | 2–2630 | 7–2040 | 33–707 | Home age | Gorospe (2012) |
Washington DC; urban gardens | 0.2–6.6 | 8–240 | 44–5300 | 74–2600 | Proximity to homes (esp. Pb); variable | Preer et al. (1984) |
Noyelles-Godault (France); kitchen gardens | 2.8–21.1 | ND | 190–1425 | 199–2429 | Former mining/smelter area | Douay et al. (2013) |
Paris area (France); kitchen garden soils | 17.2–23.9a | ND | 387–1708a | 2350–2871a | Garden amendments; ag practices | Waterlot et al. (2011) |
Kampala City, Uganda; peri-urban ag | 0.12–21.0 | 26–1690 | 10–653 | 49–3270 | Inappropriate waste disposal | Nabulo et al. (2012) |
Boolaroo (Australia); residential veg garden | 0.01–27.49 | 3–223 | 12–1626 | 45–4014 | Former Pb–Zn smelter area | Kachenko and Singh (2006) |
Port Kemba (Australia); residential veg garden | 0.01–7.01 | 65–1032 | 14–430 | 87–1947 | Former Cu smelter area | Kachenko and Singh (2006) |
Palmerton, PA (USA); garden soils | 18–113 | 41–595 | 90–370a | 1420–13,100 | Proximity to Zn smelter | Chaney et al. (1988) |
Glasgow, Scotland; allotments and parks | ND | 52–484 | 250–7051 | 164–1004 | Diffuse pollution | Hursthouse et al. (2004) |
Hong Kong; roadside gardens/parks | ND | 13–553 | 42–1034 | 173–11,316 | Road pollution | Tam et al. (1987) |
New York (USA); urban gardens | 0.1–11.0 | 5–1286 | 3–8912 | 35–2352 | Legacy (lead; incineration); pesticides | Cheng et al. (2015) |
New Orleans, LA (USA); urban ag | 0.25–8.80 | 2–200 | 1–9540 | 18–7330 | Legacy (Pb); current road/industry | Moller et al. (2018) |
Newcastle, Australia; private spaces | 3.0–9.0 | 44–1040 | 42–11,600 | 140–8570 | Legacy Cu; smelting (slag waste) | Harvey et al. (2017) |
Baia Mare, Romania, (peri)urban gardens | 1.2–13.8 | 171–2130 | 797–10,200 | 376–2130 | Legacy and deposition (mining, smelter) | Mihali et al. (2012) |
Dalnegorsk, Russia; garden/other soils | 7–26 | 29–805 | 213–5621 | 593–5438 | Mining, smelter, industry | Von Braun et al. (2002) |
London Boroughs (UK); garden-veg plot soils | bdl–68 | 8–2320 | 28–13,700 | 34–2780 | Home age | Culbard et al. (1988) |