Fig. 1

Theoretical path analysis depicting the expected interactions between pesticide use and landscape on yield. We reasoned that on the one hand pesticide use would reduce both herbivory and pollination by reducing both herbivore and pollinator populations, leading to a balanced effect on yield. On the other hand, landscape complexity would decrease herbivory by enhancing natural enemies’ control of herbivores, and would increase pollination by providing resources for pollinators, leading to a gain in yield. Blue arrows correspond to positive effects and red arrows to negative effects. ES = ecosystem service